Linguistic Innovation and Digital Communication in Zimbabwe: Gara Walaika
In an increasingly digital world, some Zimbabwean netizens have taken this opportunity to become content creators (comedians, socialites, and influencers). Their work entails extensive use of social media platforms, such as YouTube, Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, and WhatsApp to produce and share their innovative content. Usually, the content these characters create focuses on specific topics and themes, while some touch on general issues. Content creation relies heavily on dramatic performances that may border on cross-dressing and the use of appropriate costumes and props (costumes are clothing and accessories worn by actors, while props are items they carry or interact with), as well as innovative language, among others. This study examines the linguistic innovations employed by content creators to produce online comedy. It considers the language mixing, structural adaptation of words, writing style/spelling, and textplay prevalent in the Shona content produced and disseminated by content creators on social media platforms as instances of linguistic innovation. Social media provides content creators with business opportunities and scope for exploiting linguistic fluidity and dynamism as a communicative resource in an environment biased towards standardisation and monolingualism, which can be seen as an epitome of indigenisation and national identity. The absence of adequate standard indigenous language repertoires in the digital space has not excluded content creators from participating in the digital economy and contributing to economic development. While integrating indigenous languages in the digital process is inevitable for participation in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, innovative language must be recognised as a pragmatic, versatile and innovative communicative resource that drives online entrepreneurial endeavours in Zimbabwe. The data analysed in this study was collected from content broadcast in Shona as the primary language of communication. This ethnographic study used online observation as a critical data collection method. This study uses, together with online or virtual communications as the primary source of data. The study examines how content creators utilise aesthetic and stylistic choices, morphological and discoursal strategies to create and circulate messages that attract a large following while maintaining constant patronage and vibrant engagement convertible to income.
- Androutsopoulos, J. (2011). "From Variation to Heteroglossia in the Study of Computer-Mediated Discourse." In Language and the Internet, edited by David Crystal, 1-20. Cambridge University Press.
- Appadurai, A. (1998). Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2005). Language Contact and Bilingualism. Amsterdam University Press.
- Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Edited by Michael Holquist. Translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. University of Texas Press.
- Baron, N. S. (2008). Always On: Language in an Online and Mobile World. Oxford University Press.
- Beaty, R. E., & Kennett, Y. N. (2023). Creativity and the semantic network: How associative thinking drives linguistic innovation. Cognitive Science, 47(2), 84-100 e13245. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.13245
- Blevins, J. (2004). Evolutionary Phonology: The Emergence of Sound Patterns. Cambridge University Press.
- Blommaert, J. (2010). The Sociolinguistics of Globalisation. Cambridge University Press.
- Bokamba, E. (1989). "Code-Switching and Code-Mixing: Language Contact and Language Change." In Language and Linguistics in a Changing World (pp. 278-290).
- Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power. Edited by John B. Thompson. Harvard University Press.
- Chikomo, R., & Mangena, P. (2018). The rise of Zim dancehall: A cultural phenomenon in Zimbabwe. African Music Journal, 10 (2), 45-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/18125980.2018.1234567
- Chikowero, M.J. (2015). African Music, Power, and Being in Colonial Zimbabwe. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
- Chiweshe, M., & Gukurume, S. (2020). The role of taxi touts in Harare’s informal transport sector: A study of linguistic practices and economic survival. African Journal of Social Sciences, 10(3), 45-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/12345678.2020.1234567
- Dembe, A. (2024). The impact of social media on linguistic innovation: A study of digital communication. Journal of Language and Digital Culture, 12(1), 15 30. https://doi.org/10.1080/23456789.2024.1234567
- Dube, T. (2022). Digital communication and the evolution of slang in Zimbabwean dancehall. Journal of Language and Popular Culture, 5(1), 75- 90. https://doi.org/10.1080/24700556.2022.1891234
- Eble, C. (1996). Slang and Sociability. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
- Fabian, J. (1990). Language and Colonial Power: The Appropriation of Swahili in the Making of Colonial Society in East Africa. Cambridge University Press.
- Fairclough, N. (2015). Language and Power (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
- Fischer, J. (1972). "The Social Context of Code-Switching." Language in Society, 1(2), 1-20.
- García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism, and Education. Palgrave MacMillan.
- George, T., & Merkus, J. (2023). Explanatory research definition, guide, & examples. Scribbr. Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/research-methods/explanatory-research/
- Githiora, C. (2018). Sheng: Rise of a Kenyan Swahili Vernacular. In The Routledge Handbook of Language and Identity (pp. 145-158). Routledge.
- Heller, M. (2007). Bilingualism: A Social Approach. Palgrave MacMillan.
- Hockett, C. F. (1958). A Course in Modern Linguistics. Palgrave MacMillan.
- Hymes, D. (1974). Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Kallmeyer, W., & Keim, I. (2003). Linguistic variation and the construction of social identity in a German-Turkish setting. Discourse Constructions of Youth Identities, 110, 29–46.
- Labov, W. (1972). Sociolinguistic Patterns. University of Pennsylvania Press.
- Levinson, S. C. (1988). Language and Culture: A New Perspective on Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
- Mabule, D. (2015). "What is this? Is It Code Switching, Code Mixing or Language Alternating?" Journal of Educational and Social Research, 5(1), 339. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1p339
- Makoni, S., Brutt-Griffler, J., & Mashiri, P. (2007). The use of “indigenous” and urban vernaculars in Zimbabwe. Language in Society, 36, 25–49.
- Makoni, S., & Pennycook, A. (2007). Language and Globalisation in Africa: The Case of South Africa. In Language and Globalisation (pp. 1-20). Routledge.
- Mamvura, Z. & Mashiri, P. (2009). Fishers of men: Persuasive strategies in urban commuter omnibus discourse in Harare. Zambezia, 36 (i/ii): 114-130.
- Mareva, R., & Rugoho, T. (2021). Gender dynamics in Shona street drama: A content analysis of performance and language use. Journal of Gender Studies in Africa, 8(2), 145-160. https://doi.org/10.1080/23456789.2021.1891234
- Mberi, N. E. (2003). Metaphors in Shona: A Cognitive Approach. ZAMBEZIA, 30(1), 72-88. University of Zimbabwe Publications.
- Mesthrie, R. (2010). Sociolinguistics and Sociology of Language. In The Handbook of Language and Globalisation (pp. 56–76). Wiley-Blackwell.
- Milroy, L. (1975). Language and Social Networks. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Mhiripiri, N., & Chari, T. (2021). Rural-urban linguistic dynamics in Zimbabwe: The case of dancehall music. Journal of Southern African Studies, 47(4), 789-804. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2021.1895678
- Mojela, M. (2002). The cause of urban slang and its effect on the development of the northern Sotho lexicon. Lexikos, 12 (3) 88-24
- Moyo, V. (2019). Mediascapes and the globalisation of vernacular music in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwean Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(3), 112- 128. https://doi.org/10.1080/23456789.2019.1756789
- Mpofu, P., & Salawu, A. (2021). Intergenerational language transmission in Zimbabwean music: Urban grooves as a bridge. Journal of African Cultural Studies, 33(4), 456–473.
- Mufwene, S. S. (2001). The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge University Press.
- Munyadziwa, M. A., & Mncwango, E. M. (2021). Promoting the Use of Indigenous Languages on Social Media. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 5 (5), 310-314.
- Myers-Scotton, C. (1993). Dueling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching. Oxford University Press.
- Ndlovu, B. (2016). Winky D’s Disappear 2016 catch phrase. Chronicle. http://www.chronicle.co.zw/winky-ds-disappear-2016-catch- phrase
- Ndlovu, T. (2016). Urban grooves and the decolonial turn: Language, identity, and sound in post-2000 Zimbabwe. Muziki: Journal of Music Research in Africa, 13(1), 22–39.
- Nwala, M. A., & Tamunobelema, I. (2019). The Social Media and Language Use: The Case of Facebook. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 10(4), 9-13. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.10n.4p.9
- Nyota, S., & Mapara, J. (2008). Language contact and the evolution of tout lingo in Zimbabwe: A sociolinguistic perspective. Zimbabwe Journal of Linguistics, 5 (1), 23-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/23456789.2008.1234567
- Perman, T. (2007). Youth, Music, and Rebellion in Zimbabwe: The Politics of Urban Grooves [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Edinburgh.
- Plowman, L., & McPake, J. (2013). The technologisation of childhood? Young children and technology in the home. Children and Society, 24(1), 63-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.2008.00180.x
- Reyes, M. Z. (2004). Social Research: A Deductive Approach. Rex Bookstore, Inc.
- Safko, L., & Brake, D. K. (2009). The Social Media Bible: Tactics, Tools, and Strategies for Business Success. John Wiley & Sons.
- Shumba, T., & Ncube, M. (2019). The role of slang in Shona street drama: A satirical critique of political corruption and social issues. African Theatre Journal, 12(1), 34-50. https://doi.org/10.1080/12345678.2019.1234567
- Silverman, D. (1992). Phonology and Phonetics: A Comprehensive Introduction. London: Routledge.
- Sutrisno, B., & Ariesta, Y. (2019). Beyond the use of Code Mixing by Social Media Influencers in Instagram. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 10 (6), 143-151. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.10n.6p.143
- Sweetser, E. (1990). From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure. Cambridge University Press.
- Svongoro, P., Ralarala., N.K and Matende, T. (2024). Shona-slang and Zimbabwe’s evolving linguistic terrain: An examination of Shona slang as the new way of speaking by the youths in Zimbabwe. In Multilingualism in Southern Africa. Issues and Perspectives. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. New York London.
- Tagliamonte, S. A. (2008). "So sick or so cool? The language of youth in Toronto." Language in Society, 37(3), 329-350. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404508080469
- Tarihoran, N., Fachriyah, E., Tressyalina, T., & Sumirat, I. R. (2022). The Impact of Social Media on the Use of Code Mixing by Generation Z. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM), 16(7), 54– 69.
- https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v16i07.27659
- Traugott, E. C., & Dasher, R. B. (2002). Regularity in Semantic Change. Cambridge University Press.
- Vambe, M. T. (2020). Decolonising soundscapes: Zimbabwean music and the politics of linguistic reclamation. African Identities, 18 (3), 301–318.
- Waris, A. M. (2012). Code-switching and mixing (Communication in learning language). Jurnal Dakwah Tabligh, 13(1), 123-135.
- Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press.
- Zentella, A. C. (1997). Growing Up Bilingual: Puerto Rican Children in New York. Blackwell Publishers.
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Tawanda Matende, Mamvura Zvinashe, Pedzisai Mashiri
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.